p–ISSN: 2723 - 6609 e-ISSN: 2745-5254
Vol. 4, No. 9 September 2023 http://jist.publikasiindonesia.id/
Doi: 10.59141/jist.v4i9.725 1450
THE INFLUENCE OF GLASS CEILING PERCEPTIONS AND
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE ON WOMEN'S CAREER DEVELOPMENT:
THE MEDIATING ROLE OF SELF-EFFICACY
Ririn Budiarti
1*
, Etty Puji Lestari
2
, Mafizatun Nurhayati
3
Universitas Terbuka Jakarta, Indonesia
1,2
, Universitas Mercu Buana Jakarta, Indonesia
3
Email: [email protected]
1*
2
,
3
*Correspondence
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Accepted
: 31-08-2023
Revised
: 12-09-2023
Approved
: 25-09-2023
This study aims to analyze the mediating role of self-efficacy in the
influence of glass ceiling perception and organizational culture on
women's career development. The study population was female state
civil servants occupying Echelon II, Echelon III, and Echelon IV
positions in the Rejang Lebong Regency Government totaling 141
respondents. This study used a survey method with a research instrument
in the form of a questionnaire/questionnaire. The validity and reliability
of the instrument will be tested through SPSS and data analysis will be
carried out with the Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Model
(SEM PLS). The results showed that the perception of the glass ceiling
did not affect women's career development. Organizational culture
positively influences women's career development. Self-efficacy has a
positive effect on women's career development. The study found that
self-efficacy cannot mediate glass ceiling perceptions of women's career
development. However, self-efficacy mediates organizational culture
towards women's career development.
Keywords: glass ceiling;
organizational culture; self-
efficacy; women's career
development.
Introduction
The participation of female state civil servants in the Indonesian bureaucratic
workforce has experienced significant growth in the last 5 (five) years. The percentage
increase increased to reach 53%, which is more than the percentage of male state civil
servants in the Indonesian Bureaucracy which is only around 47%. However, the lack of
representation of women in high leadership positions raises the problem of gender
inequality in the bureaucratic workforce.
The phenomenon of women's representation in high leadership positions occurs in
the Rejang Lebong Regency Government. Of the 451 State Civil Apparatus who occupy
structural positions, the Women's State Civil Apparatus occupy Echelon II positions with
as many as 3 people, Echelon III with as many as 58 people, and Echelon IV with as many
as 127 people. This phenomenon can be assumed that the career development of female
state civil servants in high structural positions is relatively slower than that of male state
civil servants.
Career development is explained as a series of activities toward career assessment
and strengthening for individuals, both men and women, in achieving future career goals
(Shasrini & Sukri, 2021). Career development is carried out to increase work
effectiveness by employees to further contribute to realizing organizational goals.
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Perempuan: Peran Mediasi Efikasi Diri
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The low representation of women in occupying strategic positions is one of the glass
ceiling issues that occurs in most countries (Jauhar & Lau, 2018). Previous research by
(Marina, Singh, & Ahmad, 2020) revealed that although more women in Armenia have
assumed strategic roles, gender balance is still elusive, (Wijayanti, Sugiyanto, &
Sukmadewi, 2022) research also found that there is a significant impact of the glass
ceiling on the career development of female executive-level employees. However,
another study by Mariah & Zulhaida (2018) shows that there is no gender gap in terms of
the glass ceiling for women's career development in banking. Similarly, (Soumya &
Sathiyaseelan, 2021) research shows that the opportunity has been given to female
officers of the permanent commission in the Supreme Court of India to protect the
interests of women in the Army.
Another important obstacle to the promotion of women in management highlighted
is organizational culture. The discriminatory perspective on gender in organizations was
found by (Beniwal & James, 2019) in their research which suggests that organizational
culture factors are one of the causes of discrimination against women's careers. Similarly,
research by Krøtel et al. (2019) found that organizational growth is associated with a low
representation of women at the manager level compared to the proportion of male
managers in Denmark. This is in contrast to (Marina et al., 2020) research which found
that organizational culture does not have a significant impact on women's career
advancement in Armenia which shows that Armenians have feminist traits.
The idea of self-efficacy is associated with the perception of the glass ceiling and
is considered one of the driving forces behind an individual's attitude towards the
organizational culture that occurs in his work environment. (Hartman & Barber, 2020)
research findings show that self-efficacy positively affects women's career aspirations in
the workplace. Other findings by (Jemini-Gashi, Duraku, & Kelmendi, 2021) show that
self-efficacy mediates organizational and family support relationships toward career
decision-making on desired career certainty. The findings of (Batool, Mansor, Bashir, &
Zainab, 2021) research show that self-efficacy is proven to mediate between glass ceiling
perceptions and interpersonal conflicts in women's career advancement in Pakistan.
It was found that there was a gap in the representation of women who occupied
strategic positions at the high echelon level in the Rejang Lebong Regency Government
Bureaucracy which was still low. This research is expected to be a reference and input in
career development for women, especially in the Rejang Lebong Regency Government
so that the management of human resource management and career management for
women can be managed with professional attention and credibility.
Albert Bandura created self-efficacy as part of social cognitive theory for the
development of social learning theory. Social learning theory is the source of social
cognition. According to social learning theory, people will pick up new behaviors if they
are motivated to do them by seeing and imitating others doing them (Lianto, 2019).
Social learning theory was developed by Bandura in 1976 and relies on two main
aspects of understanding (Brunner, 2018). Those two aspects are the instrumental
learning experience and the associative learning experience. Bandura proposed social
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Jurnal Indonesia Sosial Teknologi, Vol. 4, No. 9, Septemer 2023 1452
cognitive theory in response to his dissatisfaction with the psychological principles of
behaviorism (learning perspective) and psychoanalytic (human psychological behavior).
The principle places too much emphasis on environmental determination as the only
factor influencing individual behavior.
Literature Review
Social Cognitive Theory
The goals of social cognitive theory center on the level of success achieved in both
employment and educational attainment and the ability to persevere when faced with
obstacles. This ability possessed by individual women will ultimately minimize the glass
ceiling obstacles that occur in achieving a higher career in the future.
Social cognitive theory is also relevant to organizational culture as an important
concept of social learning theory. To support the development of women's competencies
effectively, organizations need to learn about work culture about patterns that will be
applied in achieving the organization's vision and mission set. Work environment and
culture are important factors for individuals because they greatly influence behavior in
creating high self-confidence in the desired career choice.
Women's Career Development
Women's career development is a connected set of actions that take into account
work experience, employee behavior, values, and goals (Glueck, 1997). A female
employee is considered to have a fair and equal opportunity to be promoted to a higher
level or to move to another functional area within an organization to gain experience or
development goals, referred to as career advancement for female employees (Callanan &;
Greenhaus, 1999) in (Jauhar & Lau, 2018). It can be concluded that women's career
development is a process of improving higher working life in an organization for female
employees and having equal opportunities in positions occupied by men.
Glass Ceiling Perception
Hymowitz and Schellhardt originally used the phrase "glass ceiling" in a 1986 Wall
Street Journal article. The term "glass ceiling" was first used to describe the visible and
contrived barriers that women must overcome to advance to senior positions in a
company. In his book "Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling," Wirth claims that the term
"glass ceiling" was first used in the United States in the 1970s to refer to an invisible
artificial barrier that prevented women from holding senior executive positions.
Dalton and Kesner (1993) in (Yaratım, 2019) suggest that glass ceilings are
intentionally constructed and are a major obstacle in progress in the workplace to promote
women to higher managerial positions in organizations. The clichéd stereotype that
women are seen as less competent, emotional in making decisions, and not dominant to
occupy top positions in organizations becomes an invisible obstacle for women in their
career development. The dominance of men occupying leadership positions is partly due
to the classification of jobs based on sex, giving rise to prejudice against discrimination
against women in the workplace. This shows that although women have been able to rise
to higher levels, they are still limited by invisible obstacles described as glass ceilings
Pengaruh Persepsi Glass Ceiling Dan Budaya Organisasi Terhadap Pengembangan Karir
Perempuan: Peran Mediasi Efikasi Diri
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(Hussin et al., 2021). H1: The perception of the glass ceiling negatively affects women's
career development.
Organizational Culture
Pettigrew (1979) was the first to formally introduce the term organizational culture,
which combines different anthropological bases. Pettigrew (1979) argues organizational
culture is a generally and collectively accepted system of meaning that applies to a
particular group on a given occasion. According to Schein (1987), (Reeder, 2020) sees
culture as a pattern of shared basic assumptions that have worked well enough to be
considered valid and therefore taught to new members as the correct way to understand,
think, and feel about the problem.
A healthy organizational culture helps boost employee morale where employees
feel valued for their contributions. A healthy organizational culture also improves
individual well-being, directly leading to employees' overall career development (Khan,
Mishra, & Ansari, 2021). Unhealthy organizational culture in the management of work
pressure, undirected tasks, and role functions, the presence of work-life imbalances affect
employee behavior and performance.
Self-efficacy
According to Bandura (1997), a person's trust in his talents will affect how he
responds to certain circumstances and settings. Individuals who doubt their abilities
become obstacles as they strive toward their career goals. Individuals with high self-
efficacy can act to create desired outcomes, such as working towards a new position or
career promotion. (Hartman & Barber, 2020) research shows that self-efficacy positively
affects women's career aspirations in the workplace.
Self-efficacy plays an important role in positive thinking that correlates with
personal goals, perseverance, and reliability to deal with failure. With a high level of self-
efficacy, individuals can manage negative emotions and express positive emotions that
can be developed to face challenges that occur in organizations such as the perception of
a glass ceiling which may be an obstacle to career development for women. Even (Batool
et al., 2021) found that self-efficacy mediates the glass ceiling relationship to personal
conflict in employee career advancement.
Method
Research design
The type of research contained in this study is in the form of quantitative research.
This quantitative research design is one type of research whose specifications are
systematic, planned, and structured from the beginning to the making of the research
design (Widiasworo, 2019: 31).
This study used a survey method with a research instrument in the form of a
questionnaire/questionnaire. The type of questionnaire used is a closed questionnaire,
where respondents respond according to the answer choices given by the researcher.
Questionnaires or questionnaires as primary data will be disseminated to respondents
through Google Forms. The validity and reliability of the instrument will be tested
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Jurnal Indonesia Sosial Teknologi, Vol. 4, No. 9, Septemer 2023 1454
through SPSS and data analysis will be carried out with the Partial Least Square-
Structural Equation Model (SEM PLS).
Population and Sample
The population that is all subjects or objects of research targets is female state civil
servants occupying Echelon II, Echelon III, and Echelon IV positions in the Rejang
Lebong Regency Government which amounts to 141 populations. The sample that is part-
owned by the population will be determined by a saturated sampling technique that
represents the total population. That is, all members of the people are used as research
samples.
Measurement
The research concepts used in the measurement of each variable are detailed in
dimensions and indicators. Each indicator was measured using a Likert scale of 5 with
categories 1: strongly disagree, 2: disagree, 3: neutral, 4: agree, 5: strongly agree. Glass
Ceiling is measured using Krissetyanti (2018) measurements. Which consists of 4
dimensions, namely personal, family, organizational, and social. Organizational Culture
is measured by the value of Ber-AKHLAK based on Law No. 5 of 2014 which consists
of 7 dimensions, namely Service-Oriented, Accountable, Competent, Harmonious, Loyal,
Adaptive, Collaborative. Self-efficacy is measured by the measurement of Bandura
(1997) with 3 dimensions namely level, strength, and generalization.
The questionnaire distribution was carried out from June 26 to July 7, 2023, at the
Regional Apparatus Organization in Rejang Lebong Regency and addressed to all
respondents. The respondents were female state civil servants totaling 188 people,
consisting of 3 echelon II respondents, 58 echelon III respondents, and 127 echelon IV
respondents.
Filling out the questionnaire from June 26 to July 9, 2023, 46 responses were
obtained from respondents. Furthermore, in the period from July 10 to July 15, 2023, 95
responses were obtained from respondents. From the questionnaire distributed to 188
respondents, a total of 141 responses were obtained from respondents, and 47 respondents
did not respond. Due to limited research time, it was decided not to increase the research
time.
Results and Discussion
The object of research is a female state civil apparatus in the Rejang Lebong
Regency Government. The demographic characteristics of 141 respondents showed that
100% were female respondents, with 32.6% aged 30 – 40 years, 44.7% aged 41 – 50
years, and 22.7% aged over 50 years. The most marital status is 97.2% married. The
highest educational qualification of 79.4% is S-1. The length of work of most respondents
71.6% is 10-20 years with most respondents' positions in echelon IV positions as much
as 62.4%. The most respondents, 61.7%, came from official organizational units.
The model used is a Structural Equation Model (SEM) approach based on Partial
Least Square (PLS) with SMART PLS software Version 3.2.9. This model aims to
Pengaruh Persepsi Glass Ceiling Dan Budaya Organisasi Terhadap Pengembangan Karir
Perempuan: Peran Mediasi Efikasi Diri
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confirm the theory and explain the presence or absence of relationships between latent
variables. The test models used are measurement model tests (Outer Model) and structural
model tests (Inner Model).
The calculation results of the measurement model test (Outer Model) in Table 1 for
convergent validity tests show that there are several indicators whose values are still
below 0.70 but are not removed because the values of Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
and Forner – Larcker Criterion values have been met.
Table 1
Convergent Validity of Outer Loadings
Organizational
Culture
Self-efficacy
Glass Ceiling
Women's Career
Development
B1
0.671
E10
0.887
G10
0.780
P1
0.864
B12
0.711
E11
0.897
G11
0.726
P10
0.848
B13
0.801
E12
0.810
G12
0.824
P2
0.899
B14
0.801
E13
0.857
G13
0.912
P3
0.902
B15
0.825
E2
0.604
G14
0.901
P4
0.740
B16
0.773
E3
0.670
G15
0.899
P5
0.870
B17
0.629
E4
0.878
G16
0.866
P6
0.846
B18
0.648
E5
0.863
G17
0.884
P7
0.890
B19
0.780
E6
0.764
G18
0.896
P8
0.740
B20
0.829
E7
0.863
G19
0.725
P9
0.761
B21
0.622
E8
0.854
G20
0.845
B23
0.699
E9
0.824
G21
0.676
B25
0.674
G6
0.721
B26
0.612
B3
0.690
B4
0.620
Source: Smart PLS Data Processing Results
Another measure of convergent validity is the Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
value which describes the manifest variable that a latent construct can have. The results
of calculating the AVE value after the loading factor value has been ideal can be seen in
Table 2.
Table 2
Validity Konvergen Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
Average Variance Extracted
(AVE)
Organizational Culture
0.512
Self-efficacy
0.671
Glass Ceiling
0.678
Women's Career Development
0.703
Source: SmartPLS Data Processing Results
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Jurnal Indonesia Sosial Teknologi, Vol. 4, No. 9, Septemer 2023 1456
Another measure of discriminant validity is through the Fornell-Larcker Criterion
where the AVE root value must be higher than the correlation between constructs and
other constructs, then discriminant validity is stated to be good as in Table 3.
Table 3
Validity of the Fornell-Lacker Criterion Discriminant
Organizational
Culture
Efficacy
Self
Glass
Ceiling
Women's
Career
Development
Organizational Culture
0.715
Self-efficacy
0.870
0.819
Glass Ceiling
0.607
0.487
0.824
Women's Career Development
0.889
0.882
0.553
0.838
Source: SmartPLS Data Processing Results
Reliability tests are evaluated using Cronbach's Alpha to measure the lower limit of
a construct's reliability value and using Composite Reliability (CR) to measure the actual
value of the construct's reliability. The Composite Reliability (CR) interpretation is the
same as Cronbach's Alpha where a limit value of > 0.70 is acceptable and a > value of
0.80 is very satisfactory, as can be seen in Table 4.
Table 4
Cronbach's Alpha Reliability and Composite Reliability
Cronbach's Alpha
Composite Reliability
Organizational Culture
0.935
0.943
Self-efficacy
0.954
0.960
Glass Ceiling
0.960
0.964
Women's Career Development
0.952
0.959
Source: SmartPLS Data Processing Results
After evaluating the construct/variable measurement model, the next step is to
measure the structural model (inner model). The first step is to evaluate the structural
model to see the significance of the relationships between variables by bootstrapping. The
results of the evaluation of the R Square value for the self-efficacy mediation variable
were 0.759 and the dependent variable of women's career development had an R Square
value of 0.841. The R square value obtained by the two variables is close to the value of
0.67 which means substantial or it can be said that the model is good. This can be seen in
Table 5.
Table 5. R Square
R Square
R Square Adjusted
Efikasi Diri
0.759
0.755
Pengembangan Karir Perempuan
0.841
0.837
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Sumber : Hasil Olah Data SmartPLS
The next step is to determine the Q PredivRelevance todeermiethe effectural
mdelvaatent variables. Quilted using the formula:
The results show that the Q Square value of 0.9617 > 0, meaning that the evidence
that the observed value has been well reconstructed so that the model has predictive
relevance.
The next test is to validate the entire structural model using Goodness of Fit (GoF).
Gof values range from 0 to 1 with value categories 0.1 (GoF) Sma0. 5 (oF medium the
nd 0.3 (GoFlarthe ge). d a
= 0,3987
The results show that the Goodness of Fit (GoF) value is 0.3987, meaning that it
belongs to the large category because the value is around 0.38. The next test is used to
determine whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected by paying attention to the
significance value between t-statistical constructs and p-values. In the bootstrapping
resampling method in this study, the significance value was 0.05 and the one-tailed test
type was obtained in Figure 2 below.
Gambar 5 Hasil Bootstrapping Hipotesis
Table 6
Path Coefficients
Original
Sample
(O)
Sample
Mean
(M)
Standard
Deviation
(STDEV)
T Statistics
(|O/STDEV|)
P
Values
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Jurnal Indonesia Sosial Teknologi, Vol. 4, No. 9, Septemer 2023 1458
Organizational Culture -> Self-
efficacy
0.909
0.916
0.036
25.512
0.000
Organizational Culture ->
Women's Career Development
0.876
0.883
0.042
20.728
0.000
Self-efficacy -> Women's Career
Development
0.455
0.451
0.086
5.312
0.000
Glass Ceiling -> Self-efficacy
-0.066
-0.069
0.052
1.260
0.104
Glass Ceiling -> Women's Career
Development
0.021
0.017
0.061
0.345
0.365
Source: SmartPLS Data Processing Results
Hypothesis testing is also carried out for mediating variables so that results can be
seen in the following table 7.
Table 7. Specific Indirect Effect
Original
Sample
(O)
Sample
Mean
(M)
Standard
Deviation
(STDEV)
T Statistics
(|O/STDEV|)
P
Values
Organizational Culture -> Self-
Efficacy -> Women's Career
Development
0.413
0.413
0.078
5.277
0.000
Glass Ceiling -> Self-Efficacy ->
Career Development
-0.030
-0.030
0.023
1.277
0.101
Source: SmartPLS Data Processing Results
Based on the H1 hypothesis test, it proves that the perception of the glass ceiling
has a positive effect on the career development of female state civil servants in the Rejang
Lebong Regency government so H1 is rejected. This finding supports Mardiah &
Zulhaida's (2018) research which shows that there is no gender gap in terms of the glass
ceiling toward women's career development in banking. (Soumya & Sathiyaseelan, 2021)
research shows that the opportunity has been given to female officers of the permanent
commission in the Supreme Court of India to protect the interests of women in the Army.
The Rejang Lebong Regency Government has even conducted a competency test
for echelon officials from echelon IV to echelon II every year as a benchmark for the
performance of the state civil apparatus. This certainly provides an opportunity for all
state civil servants to participate in the human resource improvement program, especially
for female state civil servants. Moreover, the Rejang Lebong Regency Government has
regulated this gender position in the Regional Regulation of Rejang Lebong Regency
Number 1 of 2021 concerning Gender Mainstreaming in Regional Development. Article
12 reads "The Regent shall provide access to at least 30% of women's representation in
the selection of appointments of structural and functional officials as long as they meet
the requirements".
The H2 test was accepted because it proved that organizational culture had a
positive effect on the career development of female state civil servants in the Rejang
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Lebong Regency government. These findings support the findings of (Khan et al., 2021)
research that a strong organizational culture is directly responsible for positive employee
career development. A healthy organizational culture also improves individual well-
being, directly leading to employees' overall career development. It is known that the
organizational culture with the core value of "Ber-AKHLAK" by President Joko Widodo
in 2021 is applied to all government organizations to provide a work culture that
encourages the formation of a professional character of the state civil apparatus wherever
the state civil apparatus is assigned.
The H3 test was accepted because it proved that self-efficacy had a positive effect
on the career development of female state civil servants in the Rejang Lebong Regency
government. These findings support (Hartman & Barber, 2020) research which shows
that self-efficacy positively affects women's career aspirations in the workplace. Other
research findings by De Clercq et al. (2019) show that self-efficacy has a very strong role
in the employee's employment rate for career achievement.
Based on the H4 test, it was declared rejected. This shows that glass ceiling
perception has a positive effect on self-efficacy. In H1, it was found that the glass ceiling
had a positive effect on the career development of female state civil servants in the Rejang
Lebong Regency Government so this also significantly positively affected self-efficacy.
The low glass ceiling level faced by women in their careers fosters individual expectations
about expected outcomes and thus increases self-efficacy.
It is known that H1 and H4 show results that the perception of the glass ceiling has
a positive effect on self-efficacy and career development of female state civil servants in
the Rejang Lebong Regency Government so self-efficacy cannot play a role as a
mediating variable because the perception of glass ceiling which is not an obstacle to
women's career development in Rejang Lebong Regency which means H5 is rejected.
Although H4 and H5 are rejected because they positively affect self-efficacy and thus do
not act as mediating variables, the goals of social cognitive theory center on the level of
success achieved indicated in both employment and educational attainment and the ability
to persevere when faced with obstacles. This finding does not support the results of
(Batool et al., 2021) study which found that self-efficacy mediates the glass ceiling
relationship to personal conflict in employee career advancement. Similarly, the results
of Shin et al.'s (2019) research found that there is a mediating effect of self-efficacy in
the relationship between gender stereotypes and women's career decisions in South
Korean universities.
The H6 test is declared accepted, this shows that an organizational culture that cares
about the growth of its employees and provides recognition for their performance will
increase high self-efficacy for employees to foster a sense of enthusiasm, ideas, and
commitment to be carried out together in their organization as well as for the expected
career determination (Khan et al., 2021). The positive organizational culture in the Rejang
Lebong Regency Government is currently leading to good development as in the last 5
(five) years there have been very few employee mutations. Even at the executive level,
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Jurnal Indonesia Sosial Teknologi, Vol. 4, No. 9, Septemer 2023 1460
there is very little employee turnover between organizations, including at higher levels
because they have to take a competency test with applicable conditions.
H7 testing is accepted where self-efficacy plays a role in mediating organizational
culture towards women's career development. Self-efficacy can support women's career
development and influence individual behavior to believe in their potential and
competence in achieving a better career even though female employees are in a work
environment dominated by men with a masculine work culture with high self-efficacy,
they will have a good impact on women's involvement in organizational activities. These
findings support the research of (Jemini-Gashi et al., 2021) showing that self-efficacy
mediates in organizational relationships to career decision-making on desired career
certainty.
Conclusion
Research shows that in the Rejang Lebong Regency Government, the perception of
the glass ceiling as an obstacle to women's self-efficacy and career development is not
proven. Respondents felt there was no discrimination against career advancement
between women and men, especially in the personal dimension, where their confidence
was high enough to achieve a better career. An organizational culture that conducts
periodic performance evaluations is recognized as having a positive influence on women's
self-efficacy and career development. Self-efficacy was also found to be an important
factor in career development, with increased curiosity and diligent performance as the
first step.
Low glass ceiling perceptions positively affect self-efficacy, but self-efficacy does not
mediate the relationship between glass ceiling perceptions and women's career
development. An organizational culture that supports employee growth with recognition
of performance is thought to contribute to high self-efficacy, which in turn supports career
development. A limitation of this study involves focusing on Echelon II, III, and IV
positions in the district. Future studies may extend coverage to the provincial level and
consider other variables such as organizational or leadership support. In addition, further
research can explore glass ceiling perceptions in contexts of discrimination other than
gender, such as social status or race.
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